This timeline is an ongoing visual literature review and interdisciplinary research project created by Felix Rodriguez, PhD candidate in Art Education at Penn State and B. Stephen Carpenter, II, Professor of Art Education and African American Studies at Penn State. This timeline was made possible by a Humanitarian Engineering Grant through the Materials Research Institute at Penn State. The timeline builds on and is an extension of the African Diaspora Water Crisis Curriculum Project through Reservoir Studio. Initial funding for the African Diaspora Water Crisis Curriculum Project was provided by the Africana Research Center at Penn State.
In 1914 the U.S. Public Health Service set standards for the bacteriological quality of drinking water. These standards were revised in 1925, 1946, and 1962.
The microscope has an important place in the history of water filtration because it permitted seeing water contaminants that were ignored before. Anotonie van Leeuvenhoek (1632-1723) and Robert Hooke (1635-1703) used the newly invented microscope to observe small material particles suspended in liquid solutions for the very first time in history. Escherichia coli was discovered by Theodor Escherich in 1885. He originally called it Bacterium coli commune because it is found in the colon. In 1919 the bacteria was named Escherichia coli after him. In mid-19th century London, city officials began to link the spread of cholera to poor drinking water quality (Baker & Taras, 1981). In areas where sand water filters had been installed, the outbreak of cholera had greatly decreased. To further corroborate this conclusion, John Snow, a British scientist, was able to link several cholera deaths to water from the Broad Street Pump, a nearby water pump that had become contaminated by a leaking sewer (Baker & Taras, 1981. , 2017)
Civil engineer Abel Wolman and chemist Linn H. Enslow of the Maryland Department of Health in Baltimore develop a rigorous scientific formula for the chlorination of urban water supplies. To determine the correct dose, they analyzed the bacteria, acidity, and factors related to taste and purity. By the 1930s chlorination was commonly use in public water supplies to eliminate waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A, and dysentery. The formula is still used today by water treatment plants around the world.
By 1935, Sir Henry Doulton, of the Royal Doulton china company of London in the UK, invented the ceramic cartridge for removing bacteria from water. As early as 1827, Henry Doulton developed ceramic filters to improve the quality of drinking water.
Yudkin (1937) concluded that silver inhibits several oxidative enzymes in E. Coli.
The World Health Organization was created in 1948, three years after the creation of the United Nations. the WHO has been a key player in identifying the impact of the global water crisis to human health, establishing goals to tackle the global water crisis, and funding for water and sanitation related research.
Ductile cast-iron pipe, developed in 1948, is used in water distribution systems. It becomes the industry standard for metal due to its superior strength, durability, and reliability over cast iron. The pipe is used to transport potable water, sewage, and fuel.
Bragg and Rainnie (1974) suggested that silver ions affect the respiratory system of E. coli. “Silver ions inhibited the oxidation of glucose, glycerol, fumarate, succinate, D-and L-lactate, and endogenous substrates by intact cell suspensions of Esclrerichia coli. Silver ions reacted with the respiratory chain at two levels. The site most sensitive to inhibition was located between the 6-cytochromes and cytochrome 0,. The second level of inhibition was in the NADH and succinate dehydrogenase regions of the respiratory chain, and was situated on the substrate side of the flavin components.”
Amended in 1986 and 1996, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was originally passed by Congress in 1974 to protect public health by regulating the nation’s public drinking water supply.
At the time there was growing concern that asbestos-like fibres in drinking water could be a potential health hazard. Lawrence et. al. Concluded that that the most effective method for the removal of asbestos are simple sand filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, chemical coagulation or combinations of these depending on the degree of removal required. The most effective method, involving chemical coagulation with iron salts and polyelectrolytes followed by filtration, resulted in better than 99·8% fibre removal from water containing 12 x 106 fibres 1−1.
Moore and Cook (1975) concluded that RADIUM is absorbed from natural waters on to acrylic fibres impregnated with oxides of manganese. This extraction technique, developed for oceanographic studies, is also effective in removing radium from drinking water.
We found that filtration of water with organic matter and UV dosages as low as 4000 pW's' cm-2 killed 1OO% of some P. fluorescens and A. salmorticida strains, while other test bacteria were rednced by 99.83-99.99%. While UV irradiation of filtered water has been shown effective in killing known numbers of bacterial pathogens and effecting disease control, the present studies were conducted on a small scale.
James Barnard, a South African engineer, develops a wastewater treatment process that removes nitrates and phosphates from wastewater without the use of chemicals. Known as the Bardenpho process, it converts the nitrates in activated sludge into nitrogen gas, which is released into the air, removing a high percentage of suspended solids and organic material.
In 1981 Dr. Fernando Mazariegos of the Central American Industrial Research Institute addressed this problem by designing a porous clay filter impregnated with antibacterial silver nanoparticles.(3) A crucially important aspect of this technology is that it could be made by local potters in Guatemala and offered the potential for a sustainable technology.
Solar disinfection (SODIS) was first developed in the 1980s as an affordable approach to water purification. In 1991, the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology started to investigate and implement SODIS as a household Point-of-use water treatment option to reduce water related illnesses in developing countries. While solar disinfection has been found effective in eliminating bio-contaminants, it requires sunlight and a large supply of plastic bottles. Because bottled water has to be exposed to the sun for more than 6 hours, the amount of water that can be processed is very limited compared to other POU methods (D. S. Lantagne, Quick, & Mintz, 2006).
Mazariegos trained Indigenous people in Ecuador's highland on how to make his ceramic water filters. Ron Rivera was there as well. There Rivera learned Mazariegos' method.
Chlorine was first recognized as a valuable chemical in treating water by John Snow when he used it to purify cholera-causing in the UK in 1854. Noting the disinfecting nature of chlorine and its ability to curb cholera deaths, government officials in Great Britain began to chlorinate the public drinking water. This application of chlorine resulted in a sharp decline in deaths (Christman, 1998). While chlorine has been proven to be effective in purifying water, it is not very popular. Household users complain about the taste and have reported a refusal to drink the water since the smell is similar to household bleach (Kirchhoff & McClelland, 1985).
Potters for Peace (PFP) was founded in 1986 and began work with Mika Seeger in Nicaragua in 1988.(4) PFP hired Ron Rivera to coordinate their exchange activities in Nicaragua in 1989. At this time PFP was not heavily involved in the production of the low-cost water filters, although Rivera did work with the Mazariegos water filter in Ecuador.
In 1994, the Family Foundation of the Americas did a health study to determine the effect of Dr. Mazariegos’s hand thrown water filter in Guatemala. The results showed that the filters resulted in a 50% reduction in the incidence of diarrhea in households involved with the project.
In 1991 Peru had a cholera outbreak that lasted five years. The major causative factor was inadequate drinking water disinfection. The epidemic spread to 19 Latin American countries, causing more than one million illnesses and 12,000 deaths.
The level of concentration of silver nanoparticle is important for effective elimination of E. coli bacteria. However, currently, there is no recommendation for Point-of-use ceramic water filter manufactures to test silver concentrations of application solutions or filtered water. Meade et al. (2017) identified six commercially available silver test strips, kits, and meters, and evaluated them by: (1) measuring in quintuplicate six samples from 100 to 1,000 mg/L (application range) and six samples from 0.0 to 1.0 mg/L (effluent range) of silver nanoparticles and silver nitrate to determine accuracy and precision; (2) ease-of-use; and (3) costs. They concluded that none of these methods accurately detected silver nanoparticles. Measurement error for silver nitrate samples ranged from 4 to 91%. The authors recommend the development of field-appropriate methods that accurately and precisely measure silver nanoparticles and silver nitrate concentrations.
In 1994, the Family Foundation of the Americas did a health study to determine the effect of Dr. Mazariegos’s hand thrown water filter in Guatemala. The results showed that the filters resulted in a 50% reduction in the incidence of diarrhea in households involved with the project.
AFA Guatemala conducted a study to test the effectiveness of silver-impregnated ceramic water filters in three communities in Guatemala. Throughout the two-year long study, bacterial samples and family visits were conducted every two weeks. Results indicated few technical problems with filter, and 91 percent of filtered water had no bacterial contamination. At the end of the study, incidence of diarrhea based on bimonthly surveys for 24 months from December 1993 – November 1994 showed clearly that families with education and filters had the lowest percent of diarrhea in children under five. In addition, education and filter use on their own reduced the rate of diarrhea, but not as significantly as education and filter use in conjunction.
Hubbart et al. (1983) suggested that some of the effects on the respiratory chain of E. coli has to do with natrate couter ions, and not with Ag+, as previously suggested by Bragg & Rainnie (1974).
Ashok Gadgil created an effective and inexpensive device for purifying water. UV Waterworks, a portable, low-maintenance, energy-efficient water purifier, uses ultraviolet light to render viruses and bacteria harmless. Operating with hand-pumped or hand-poured water, a single unit can disinfect 4 gallons of water a minute, enough to provide safe drinking water for up to 1,500 people, at a cost of only one cent for every 60 gallons of water—making safe drinking water economically feasible for populations in poor and rural areas all over the world.
Wukich took some of his students to Nicaragua to help communities rebuild after Hurricane Mitch in 1999. It was then that Wukich became acquainted with Potters for Peace, a nonprofit that got its start with water filter work in Nicaragua (Pryts, 2017).
In 2000 Potters for Peace created ceramic water filters factories in Mexico, Bangladesh, and Cambodia.
Hernandez, M. (2001). Appropriate technology in developing countries. NCECA Journal, Vol XXII., pp. 96-102. "There is a need to define Appropriate Technology (AT) as it pertains to the ceramic processing equipment that I have designed for these developing countries where PFP has been working to provide potable water. AT applied to the CWFs and the ceramic processing equipment meant that the materials for fabrication as well as the labor had to be available locally, and the equipment had to be very low tech. It had to be designed to function in rural areas that were off the power grid but would also have the capacity to function with electricity when it was available. Along with this, the equipment had to be maintainable. Any parts needed to fix the equipment should be able to be fabricated or purchased locally for it to be sustainable. It should also be noted that whatever AT is applied in one country will not necessarily be suited in the same manner in another country."(Hernandez, 2001, p. 97)
In 2001 Potters for peace opened Ceramic water filters factories in Haiti, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Nepal.
In 2006, according to the World Health Organization, more than 1 billion people were denied the right to clean water and 2.6 billion people lacked access to adequate sanitation. Every year some 1.8 million children died as a result of diarrhea and other diseases caused by unclean water and poor sanitation. Clean water was the world’s second biggest killer of children. Nearly half of all people in developing countries suffered at any given time from health issues caused by water and sanitation deficits. In the last ten years those numbers have improved, but there still is much work to be done. Today 633 Million people live without access to safe water, that is one out of ten people, and 2.4 billion don’t have access to improved sanitation. Diarrhea is the 3rd cause of child death, most of which is water related (UNICEF & WHO, 2015; Water.org, 2017).
Mintz & Wegelin (2001) argue that point-of-use approaches to water filtration target the most vulnerable and affected population in the global water crisis. This contribute to economic development and productivity, and better health. “Approaches that rely solely on time- and resource-intensive centralized solutions will leave hundreds of millions of people without access to safe water far into the foreseeable future.”
An important factor in the success of ceramic water filter in poor areas is social acceptability. Breakage and low flow rates are frequently reported reasons associated with the disuse of ceramic filters. In Nicaragua, the flow rate of filters in 14 of the 24 households was inadequate to provide sufficient drinking water for the family (Lantagne 2001b). In a Cambodian field study where filters were distributed for free, 20% of the households surveyed one year after implementation were no longer using their filter. Reasons for the abandonment were filter or tap breakage (Roberts 2004). A Cambodian field study reported a 2% per month disuse rate (Brown and Sobsey 2006).
Lisa Ballantine of FilterPure create a Ceramic Water Filter facility in the DR, in the province of MOCA.
While the lack of systematic data limits an accurate and detailed assessment of water management in the Dominican Republic, the consensus is that: “(1) the overall poor quality of surface, groundwater and coastal water resources is the result of a lack of waste water management and agricultural run-off, causing health problems that disproportionately affect the poor; (2) water scarcity is a regional problem resulting from poor demand management in irrigation, urban water supply and tourist infrastructure in drier regions; (3) weak watershed management leads to soil erosion and amplifies the damage and frequency of flooding; and (4) the overall lack of solid waste management pollutes water sources, causes disease and is a nuisance for both inhabitants and visitors” (World Bank, 2004).
Lucy and Jorge Orta employ a diversity of media – sculpture, installation, couture, painting, silkscreen, photography, video, drawing, light and performance – to create art that art that focuses on social and ecological issues, including water scarcity. Orta Water comprises a series of work addressing climate change, cooperate control of water sources, and the global water crisis.
Morones et al. (2005) concluded that the bactericidal properties of the nanoparticles are size dependent, since the only nanoparticles that present a direct interaction with the bacteria preferentially have a diameter of similar to 1-10 nm.
The exact mechanism of Ag nanoparticles on microorganisms is still debatable. Morones et al. (2005), studied the effect of silver nanoparticles in the range of 1–100 nm on Gram-negative bacteria using high angle annular dark field (HAADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). They concluded that bactericidal properties of the nanoparticles are size dependent, since the only nanoparticles that present a direct interaction with the bacteria preferentially have a diameter of ∼ 1–10 nm. Morones et al. identified three ways in which silver nanoparticles act against Gram-negative bacteria: “(1) nanoparticles mainly in the range of 1–10 nm attach to the surface of the cell membrane and drastically disturb its proper function, like permeability and respiration; (2) they are able to penetrate inside the bacteria and cause further damage by possibly interacting with sulfur- and phosphorus-containing compounds such as DNA; (3) nanoparticles release silver ions, which will have an additional contribution to the bactericidal effect of the silver nanoparticles” (p.2352). Kim et al (2007) corroborated Crabtree et al. (2003) conclusions that growth inhibition may be related to the formation of free radicals from the surface of Ag. Uncontrolled generation of free radicals can attack membrane lipids and then lead to a breakdown of membrane function. They measured the ESR spectra of Ag nanoparticles. Ag samples were prepared in powder form by stirring the Ag nanoparticles solution with a Zn bar, causing the Ag nanoparticles to aggregate. In figure 6, peaks of m1 and m2 indicate the control peaks of standard manganese, and the central peak (mT: 336.337) indicates the existence of free radicals from Ag nanoparticles, thus supporting that free-radical generation of Ag nanoparticles may be responsible for the antimicrobial effects.
Lantagne, et al (2006). conducted a review of relevant literature to compare cost-effectiveness in various point-of-us water filtration systems. HWTS (household water treatment and safe storage) systems are proven, low-cost interventions that have the potential to provide safe water to those who will not have access to safe water sources in the near term, and thus significantly reduce morbidity due to waterborne diseases and improve the quality of life. HWTS implementations have developed from small pilot projects into national-scale programs, and now face the challenge of reaching the more than 1.1 billion in need of safe drinking water, and effectively working with other water, sanitation, and hygiene programs to achieve the greatest health impact.
Interview with Ron Rivera in Nicaragua.
Founded in 2006, by a group of like minded friends, we work to promote the utilization of Ceramic Water Filters (CWFs). PWB shares skills, equipment, and information among a world-wide network of technicians, researchers and producers, and those interested in implementing filter facilities. PWB works with an open-source philosophy, collecting and distributing the latest developments in CWF technology.
For WHO (2006) access to clean water is a political priority. Bad health associated with deficits in water and sanitation reduces productivity and economic growth, reinforcing the deep inequalities that characterize current patterns of globalization and trapping vulnerable households in cycles of poverty. For instance, 443 million school days each year are lost due to water-related illness. Missing these educational opportunities in childhood leads to poverty in adulthood. In addition, the cost of pure water is higher for poor families. The poorest 20% of households in El Salvador, Jamaica and Nicaragua spend on average more than 10% of their household income on water. The total global economic losses associated with inadequate water supply and sanitation were estimated at US$ 260 billion annually. The main contributor to overall benefits of sanitation is the value of time savings which accounts for more than 70% of total benefits in all regions, and is as high as 80% to 90% of total benefits in most regions (WHO, 2012).
The recommended kiln for filter production is the Mani kiln. It is a downdraft kiln designed specifically for filter production because existing smaller updraft kilns were found to be inefficient and did not have the capacity to fire a large number of filters. This larger capacity, more fuel-efficient kiln was designed using the following criteria: 1) simple design; 2) inexpensive construction; 3) fuel efficiency; 4) capability of using alternative fuels; and, 5) buildable using local labor and materials. Mani Flat Top or Mani Arch Top kilns are currently being used by 16 factories. Other designs may be used provided they fire evenly, with less than one cone differential in heat distribution and produce consistent results. (Ceramic Manufacturing Working Group, 2011)
Pal et al. (2007) investigated the antibacterial properties of differently shaped silver nanoparticles against the E. Coli bacteria, in liquid systems and on agar plates. Allegedly, this the first comparative study on the bactericidal properties of silver nanoparticles of different shapes. The research team synthesized Silver nanoparticles of different shapes by solution phase routes. They concluded that truncated triangular silver nanoplates with a {111} lattice plane as the basal plane displayed the strongest biocidal action, compared with spherical and rod-shaped nanoparticles and with Ag+ ((in the form of AgNO3). They concluded that silver nanoparticles undergo a shape-dependent interaction with the gram-negative organism E. coli.
Kim et al. (2007) evaluated the antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles against various microorganisms in three representative microorganisms: yeast, E. coli and S. aureus. They found that these organisms responded differently to silver nanoparticles. When Silver nanoparticles were tested in yeast and E. coli they effectively inhibited bacterial growth. Silver nanoparticles showed antimicrobial activity against yeast and E. coli that was similar to that found by Sondi and Salopek-Sondi (2004). In contrast, the inhibitory effect of Ag nanoparticles was mild in S. aureus as compared with other microorganisms. They concluded that the antimicrobial effects of Silver nanoparticles may be associated with characteristics of certain bacterial species. Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria have differences in their membrane structure, the most distinctive of which is the thickness of the peptidoglycan layer. They propose that the lower efficacy of the Silver nanoparticles against S. aureus may derive from the difference as a point of membrane structure.
Water Crisis Map
The filters removed between 97.8% and 100% of the applied bacteria; colloidal-silver treatments improved filter performance, presumably by deactivation of bacteria. The quantity of colloidal silver applied per filter was more important to bacteria removal than the method of application. Silver concentrations in effluent filter water were initially greater than 0.1 mg/L, but dropped below this value after 200 min of continuous operation. These results indicate that colloidal-silver-impregnated ceramic filters, which can be made using primarily local materials and labor, show promise as an effective and sustainable point-of-use water treatment technology for the world’s poorest communities. Oyanedel-Craver, V. A. & Smith, J. A. Sustainable Colloidal-Silver-Impregnated Ceramic Filter for Point-of-Use Water Treatment. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 927 (2008).
A study conducted by Oyanedel-Craver et al (2008) concluded that silver-impregnated ceramic water filters remove between 97.8% to 100% of E. Coli bacteria. Colloidal-silver treatments improved filter performance, presumably by deactivation of bacteria. They also stated that the concentration of colloidal silver applied per filter was more important to bacteria removal than the method of application.
Liu et al. (2009) suggests using 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) as a coupling agent in the application of sliver nanoparticle colloid solution of porous ceramic. That is to avoid the loss of silver nanoparticle after considerable used of silver-impregnated ceramic filter. Liu et al. (2009) state that the connection between the nanoparticle and the ceramic relies on the coordination bonds between the –NH 2 group at the top of the APTES molecule and the silver atoms on the surface of the nanoparticles. The other end of the aminosilane coupling agent attaches to silicon atoms in the ceramic through a Si–O–Si bond. Their experiments showed no obvious loss of nanoparticles after immersion in an ultrasonic bath for 15 min, or after keeping the treated ceramic for several weeks in an atmospheric environment. At a flow rate of 0.01 L/min, the output count of Escherichia coli was zero when the input water had a bacterial load of ∼10 5 colony-forming units (CFU) per milliliter.
Lantange et al. (2010) studied the effects of production variables on microbiological removal in locally-produced ceramic filters for household water treatment. They concluded that changing certain production variables, such as sawdust ration and burnable used, results in a reduction of filtration effectiveness of ceramic water filters. They concluded that A maximum flow rate of 1.7 litres per hour can be used as a preliminary quality control measure, provided the flow rate is accurately measured for each filter at the production factory.
This was part of an interdisciplinary 3-day institute that explored global water issues, including those that affect the Great Lakes region. Daily topics addressed water scarcity, effective water management, and water issues in politics, sanitation, agriculture, and economics.
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