Background image: The Great Pyramid is the oldest and largest of the three Pyramids of Giza. These Fourth Dynasty (c. 2575 - 2465 BCE) pyramids were erected on a plateau on the west bank of the Nile River near present day Al-Jīzah (Giza) in northern Egypt. The pyramids were built by Pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.
Persia falling to Alexander the Great signals the end of Achaemenid Empire.
Nicomachean Ethics is an Aristotelian exploration of the topic of ethical conduct, and the human capacity for happiness and goodness.
The Trial and Death of Socrates is an account depicting Socrates standing trial after being accused of two charges: impiety, and corrupting the youth. These charges were the legal consequence of “failing to acknowledge the gods that the city acknowledges" and "introducing new deities”, as well as asking politico-philosophic questions of his students. These actions were thought to result in moral corruption, and therefore were punishable by death.
The Symposium is one of Plato's most influential works. It contains speeches on the subject of love, the Platonic form of beauty, and the basis of reality, and provides a portrait of Socrates.
Lysistrata is a Greek comedy by Aristophanes, and was originally performed in classical Athens. It was written during the final years of the war between Athens and Sparta, and depicts the wives of the warring cities’ attempt at peace. In the story, their method for promoting peace was ceasing romantic relations with their husbands and occupying the Acropolis, which housed the Athenian treasury.
Thucydides was an Athenian historian and general, whose work The History of the Peloponnesian War recounts the fifth-century BC war between Sparta and Athens. His piece was the first recorded political and moral analysis of a nation’s war policies. The History depicts events that he lived through during his adult life, some of which he took an active part in, and all of which he was a direct or indirect spectator.
Round 1 of the Peloponnesian War (approx 431-421) involves Pericles, the Plague, and Mytilene. Round 2 (approx. 421-413) encapsulates Melos and the Sicilian Expedition, and round 3 (413-404) includes the Spartan alliance with Persia, Alicbiades’ rule in Athens, and Athens’ defeat.
Protagoras depicts a discussion between Socrates and Protagoras regarding the nature of virtue.
The Parthenon was a grand temple to the goddess Athena, the patroness of the city of Athens. The first marble temple was constructed from ca. 490-480 and dismantled when Athens was sacked by the Persians. The building of the Parthenon was part of the Periclean building program for the Acropolis, which took the ancient center and transformed it into a new center of religion with a strong cohesiveness running through all the buildings. The Parthenon was the most striking building on the Acropolis, as it was the largest and one of the most central to Athenian religious life. It was built after the Persians were no longer a threat and glorifies city and people of Athens with its sculptures and design.
Herodotus was the author of the first narrative history produced in the ancient world: the History of the Greco-Persian Wars. He is considered to be the first historian to systematically collect and arrange facts and materials in an attempt to construct an accurate and vivid account of events.
The transfer of the Delian League treasury to Athens signals the shift from the Delian League to the Athenian Empire.
The Oresteia is a trilogy of tragic plays written by the ancient Greek dramatist Aeschylus. All three stories center around the house of Atreus. These cohesive pieces constitute his last work, and are the only complete trilogy of Greek dramas to survive. Aeschylus won first prize at the festival of Dionysus in Athens for eighteenth and final time with the Oresteia.
Ephialtes gives much of the power of aristocratic Areopagus council to democratic councils (Boule, popular assembly, and popular courts). Other radical democratic reforms include introducing pay for officeholders, reducing property qualifications for holding office, and redefining citizenship. These actions were pursued by Ephialtes’ political ally, Pericles.
Ephialtes’ reforms give Athenians sole jurisdiction over high crimes and oversight of all officials. Pericles introduces pay for jury service, which is considered “radical democracy”.
The foundation of the Delian League under Athenian hegemony seeks to secure the freedom of Greeks from Persia and to liberate others.
During this time, comedies first became a part of the festival of the Greater Dionysia. Between 486 and 388 BCE, around 600 comedies were produced by Aristophanes and other poets of the era.
Darius is succeeded by Xerxes I.
Note that the date is approximate. The composition of the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy) is hypothesized as the weaving together of several textual strands: the J-text (Jahwist, ca. 950 BCE, in Judah), the E-text (Elohist, ca. 850, in Israel), the D-text (Deuteronomist, ca. 600, Jerusalem), the P-text (Priestly, ca. 500, in exile in Babylon), all presumably pulled together by a fifth-century Redactor (R).
Cleisthenes devises a new political organization that undermines the power of the aristocratic families and leads to the further democratization of Athens.
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