By this point in time, Egypt was in decline. They no longer had their possessions which they once had in Palestine or Israelites. As this was happening, conflict was breaking out in Nubia. In addition, the lack of inundation was a drain on the economy and it lessened Egypt's ability to recover from other problems. There was a increased dependance on foreign mercenaries; however, they could not be paid because of the lack of money, so this also affected Egypt. As well, homotheism became a large problem and it threatened the power of the pharaohs. There was also Egypt's corrupt government made Egypt more unstable. Ultimately, this led to end of the age of the pharaohs.
This dynasty was comprised of twelve kings. One significant king was Ramses III who saved Egypt from invasion; however, he did not solve the internal problems within the central government which eventually led to its disintegration. During his reign, the Egyptian power in several territories was destroyed. As well, the temples became more wealthy but this was at the expense of the pharaohs. Government grew corrupted and inefficient. The empire continued to shrink and many government programs failed. The influence that the Egyptians had on other areas declined.
The Hittites began to assert their control further into Syria and Palestine becoming a significant power in internation politics. Due to this, Ramesses II began to recover these areas. He did this by leading his army against the Hittites, and this was the first recorded battle. At the end of the battle, they had a peace treaty. He tried to wage conquests to reclaim old land, but it failed. There was another ruled called Merenptah who had his army fight against the Sea of Peoples who were trying to invade parts of Egypt, and he was victorious. However, these battles cost a great amount, and this led to economic problems and internal strife which led to the end of the nineteenth dynasty.
Due to this hostility and dislike that the Thebans and Hyksos had for each other, the decline of the Second Intermediate period could be credited to the overthrowing of the Hyksos. When the Thebans finally managed to get rid of them, it allowed them a new perspective.
The New Kingdom was recognized as the age of conquest and it brought Egypt prosperity and peace. The New Kingdom is main noted for its territorial expansion, as well as growth and development of art. It refined Egypt into what it's recognized as today.
During this time, there were some of the most famous pharaohs such as Ahmose I, Hatshepsut, and Tutankhamun. The rulers had a firm grasp on their people, and a strong central government. The founder, Ahmose I took and held power and laid the foundation for the New Kingdom by getting rid of all the Hyksos and instilling their rule over all of Egypt. He restored the Theban control over all of Egypt and other territories as well. Then there was another ruler who mainly focused on getting the economy to run smoothly again by opening quarries, mines, and construction projects. This was significant since building had not taken place since the Middle Kingdom. The most successful pharaoh was Hatsheput who expanded external trade which strengthened Egypt. Another ruler had strengthened the Egyptian army and led them to great success which allowed for the power and wealth of Egypt to peak. The religion of the Egyptians changed drastically from polytheistic to homotheistic. Priests were enraged and some art and buildings were destroyed. However, drama, literature, and music enhanced significantly. They stability of Egypt began to crumble after the change in religion which led to many temples closing. This became a period of turmoil. Eventually, Egypt lost it's influence and control.
After the Hyksos conquered the fifteenth dynasty, the Thebans once again reclaimed their land and established a strong control on the land, becoming the seventeenth dynasty. Despite the problems that the Thebans and Hykos had, they appeared to remain peaceful for around 20 years. There was still a hostile attitude, and eventually the calm ended and eventually war broke out between the two. The thebans wanted to punish the foreigners and their collaborators, and this eventually led to the overthrowing of Hyksos.
There were five kings from Phoenicia who ruled during this period. They invaded the two preceding dynasties and conquered their capitals. In addition, the Hyksos went further South and took that land as well. They also continued the war with the the Theban Dynasty when the Hyksos finally broke the Theban resistance and added it to his territory. It is claimed that the dynasty fell due to the internal struggle within the Hyksos which weakened their position. Afterwards, the Hyksos had to rule over the Middle and North Egypt.
This dynasty resided at Abydos and lasted for a long time. Very little has been recorded about the sixteenth dynasty; however, it is known that there were 15 kings that ruled throughout this period. Eventually, the Hyksos overthrew them and the dynasty ended.
The Middle Kingdom came to an end due to the exceeding population of Egypt and the lack of inundation. One of the rulers increased the amount of mining and agricultural practices by bringing people from other areas to live in Egypt and work in the labour force, and this was a heavy burden on the economy.
During this period, Egypt was once again troubled. They faced irregular floods which affected the control that the Pharaoh had. Eventually, the area became an anarchy due to the lack of power. Similar to the First Intermediate Period, Egypt had once again split into North and South Egypt.
There were two kings that ruled during this period of time. However, during the rule of the two kings there was another figure who was also rising in power in the the eastern Nile Delta. Due to this, the mining and expeditions halted. Due to this, the rulers only had control of the Nile Valley; however, eventually, the began to allow access to their land for trade. In addition, the kings constantly succeeded each other and this proved their instability. There was constantly a power struggle in the kingdom and this affected the nation. Due to the dependency of the dynasty on the Nile Delta they had a limited amount of food. Famine and plague became a big problem and once they were invaded by the Hyksos their dynasty came to an end.
The reign of the kings during this dynasty was relatively long and prosperous. Although many of the kings were foreign they received traditional royal titles wit the inclusion of Re into their names. This dynasty had strong ties with Nubia. During this time, famine and disease plagued the lives of many which led to an increase in burials at the time, so to bury these people they had tombs which served as mass graves. The kings succeeded each other rapidly because illness was constantly looming and this weakened the central government. Once again, the Hyksos was conquered and the dynasty fell.
During the 12th dynasty, the most important god in Ancient Egypt pantheon was Amun. The kings ruled firmly and held the balance between the central authorities and the local administrations. They imposed their rule on Northern Nubia. Fortresses were built in Nubia and the Eastern border to prevent raiding from the Bedouins. There was also the labyrinth that was built and it was used to stop grave robbers, and it was considered more complicated than the pyramids to create. The twelfth dynasty brought Egypt into economic stability and wealth, and this be seen through the statues and paintings. Statues of kings also began to change and the ears of kings were enlarged to indicate that the king listened to his subjects. As well, kings were portrayed as aging and mature.
The collapse of the kingdom can be credited to the instability of the central government and the lack of unity due to several independent provinces and territories. As well, the entire country was involved in the civil war. This tore the country apart. The final victory of the Theban dynasty led to the beginning of the Middle Kingdom
A powerful dynasty rose in the city of Thebes uniting the Upper and Lower Egypt. Egypt was once again becoming a prosperous nation. They faced a few struggles such as powerful local rulers, the powerful priesthood of the sun God Re, and agricultural turmoil.
One of the significant changes during the eleventh dynasty was the reunification of the Upper and Lower Egypt by Mentuhotep II. Instead of local governors, they were replaced with local rulers so there could not be one single power that controls everything in a certain area. They also had many officials come from the middle class so they would respect the Pharaoh. They continued to assert their dominance over its neighbors in Africa and the Near East. Trade also began to grow rapidly with Cyprus, Phoenicia, and Punt. They heavily invested themselves in mining with a strong gold supply and copper mines. The problems that they were facing with the irrigration system was repaired. There were always issues regarding inundation, so they restored one of the lakes and transformed into a reservoir so the water could be used when necessary.
During this time, local rulers of Thebes challenged the Herakleopolitans and defeated them, founding the eleventh dynasty. They had less powerful nomarchs; however they still had some independence. For some time, the two dynasties rivaled with one another and wage conflict on both diplomatic and military platforms, leading the country into a civil war.
During the seventh and eighth dynasties, the kings did not hold a lot of power and prestige, so this allowed for the country to become divided. The central government lost its control on the country and the Old Kingdom came to an end. There also suggestions that the decline was caused by lack of inundation which led to bad harvest. The central government could not handle these changes; however other provincial governors and local rulers were able to find better irrigation systems. This allowed some provinces to be more successful in controlling the floods than others. There were some local rulers who followed the rule of the central government; however, some proclaimed themselves to be kings.
This era began when the Old Kingdom's centralized rulers grew weaker as the provincial governors and local rules known as normarchs became more powerful and claimed the throne. The first Intermediate Period is recognized as chaotic and miserable. In spite of this, the culture thrived and towns developed. During this period, there were also two rivaling dynasties who constantly fought for power. With the lack of control of the central government in Memphis, there were many ramifications involving their art and architecture. A lot of the art created during this period was not refined compared to previous periods because it lacked proper craftsmen with the proper skill.
This dynasty is comprised of ninth and tenth dynasties with a total of nineteen kings who ruled over Lower Egypt. It was located in Heracleopolis which was located south of the central, Memphis. It was generally unstable because there was a frequent change in kings. The Herakleopolitans improved the irrigation systems and reopened trade with Byblos. They had frequent combats with the Thebans north of Abydos. In addition, due to the increased power of the nomarchs the Pharoanic culture grew and became more prevalent allowing the Pharaohs power beyond the royal court.
Eventually, the Old Kingdom would begin its decline. The building of the structures became a burden on the economy mainly due to the decreasing flood of the Nile. Local people had to ensure that the proper measures were taken to ensure that the land was kept fertile. Those who were successful in controlling the floods for their region began to strengthen their position against the central government. Due to this, the central power of the king was beginning to diminish. There was a growing spread of Pharoanic culture was relatively limited and they did not have as much control, in fact, it was only over royal court and the elite surrounding it.
The solar religion became more established as solar temples and pyramids were built. The first funerary texts were inscribed in royal pyramids from the Fifth Dynasty. Autobiographical texts in tombs of this period allow non-royal individuals to be identified for the first time. They usually had inscriptions and scenes relating to the fate of the king in the afterlife where he would be with the gods and stars. Massive tombs were built to preserve and protect the dead for the afterlife. Tied in with this was the involved and expensive process of mummification, which preserved the body for the next world. The government became less centralized and dominant.
During this era, there were the most changes culturally, politically, and religiously. One significant change was the transition from the Step Pyramid to the smooth-surfaced pyramid. The world-famous pyramids of Giza were built by the kinds Khufu, Kafre, and Menkaure in the Fourth Dynasty. The largest pyramid was the Great Pyramid of Gizeh which had 2.3 million limestone blocks. This was the result of increasing technical skills and the shift in religious views from the stars to the sun. The smooth surfaced pyramid was a symbol for the sun and represented the origin from which all life began. There was also military activity in the South which confirmed the Egyptian military presence in Nubia. It became an interest for the Ancient Egyptians because of their raw materials and resources.
During this time, the earliest pyramid which was the step pyramid was built by king Djoser. The step pyramid symbolized a staircase to the stars and heaven. The pyramids were created using the labour of peasants who were free during the flood season. Egyptians had the belief that working on the pyramids would allow them a gateway to the afterlife. The flourishing economy and strong central government allowed for the building of these pyramids. Many people contributed their resources and supplied for the construction of the pyramids.
The Old Kingdom, also known as the Pyramid age, is recognized as the first benchmark for the flowering of Egyptian civilization.
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